Think Tank
on
Sustainable Rehabilitation of
Mines and Quarries
(2008-2009)
Provisional Report
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Page no. |
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Contents |
1 |
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1. |
Introduction |
3 |
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2. |
The concept and terms of reference of the Think Tank |
3 |
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3. |
Basic facts
established from site visits carried out during 2008 |
4 |
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4. |
Some of the
additional problems that came to the fore |
5 |
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5. |
Revised remit of
Think Tank |
5 |
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6. |
When can a site be
considered abandoned?/ Definition of an abandoned mine/quarry |
6 |
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7. |
Parameters of
sustainable rehabilitation |
6 |
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8. |
Rehabilitation
considerations |
7 |
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8.1 Health and safety considerations |
7 |
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8.2 Aesthetic considerations |
8 |
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8.3 Considerations of ecological sustainability |
8 |
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8.4 Economic viability |
9 |
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8.5 Alternative re-use |
9 |
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8.6 Local opinion and aspirations |
10 |
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9. |
Is a mine ever
really abandoned? |
11 |
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10. |
Conclusions |
13 |
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11. |
Recommended
actions
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10 |
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Bibliography |
12 |
Appendix:
Map and list of abandoned mines and quarries visited throughout Cyprus.
Think Tank
on
Sustainable Rehabilitation of
Mines and Quarries
2008-2009
A bi-communal Think Tank was
established as part of the objectives of the project on Sustainable
Rehabilitation of Mines and Quarries undertaken by the Laona Foundation in 2007
with funding from UNDP-Act. The Think Tank met six times over a period of
approximately one year from June 2008 to April 2009. This report summarizes the deliberations and
suggestions raised during the TT meetings.
The
names of the participants in the Think Tank are set out below
(Surnames
in alphabetical order)
1.
Mr Mustafa Alcaravli, Mining
Engineer
2.
Mr Erotokritos Anastasiades,
Mining Engineer, Mineralogist
3. Dr Cavit Atalar, Mining Engineer
4. Dr George Constantinou, Geologist
5. Mr Halil Erdim, Mining Engineer
6. Mr Nicos Georgiades, Geographer, Town
Planner, Environmental Mgr
7. Mr
Bektas Göze, Mining Engineer
8. Dr Vassiliki Kassianidou, Archaeologist,
Archaeometallurgist
9. Dr Michalis Loizides,
Chemical/Environmental Engineer
10. Dr Eleni
Morisseau, Geologist specializing in mineral resources development
11. Mr
Mehmed Necdet, Geologist
12.
Mr Andreas Panayiotou, Geologist
13. Mr George
Petrides, Geologist
14. Dr Dogan Sahir, Architect
15. Mr Nick
Symons, Biologist-Ecologist
16.
Mr Dimitris Vattis, Mining
Engineer
17.
Mr Dinos Xydas, Mining
Engineer
Provisional
Report
1. Introduction
1.1
1.2 The
project ‘Sustainable use of abandoned Mines and Quarries in Cyprus’, was initiated
by the Laona Foundation, in order to frame the right questions and produce
needed answers, for the development of legal and regulatory tools regarding the
fate of abandoned mines and quarries in Cyprus. To this end the project
undertook inter alia to:
·
Set up a bicommunal,
inter-disciplinary Think Tank (TT) that can develop a working sustainable
strategy for mines and quarries
·
Perform an island-wide survey
of abandoned mines and quarries (partly covering operating quarries),
incorporating information and input from local communities
·
Perform a site-specific study
of Apliki, Mavrovouni and Skouriotissa mines and develop a pilot proposal
·
Publish and disseminate its
findings
2.
The
concept and terms
of reference of the Think Tank
2.1
The concept of setting up a Think Tank to address a specific problem is
commonplace in the western world, but not yet in Cyprus. As far the TT is
aware, this might be the first attempt to convene a TT with an ongoing brief
and, in any case, it is the first bicommunal TT to formulate an overall
strategy touching on the full spectrum of the extraction industry in Cyprus,
covering cultural, economic, environmental and other issues, concerning
abandoned mines and quarries, as well as those still operating. The aim was to generate proposals for the
sustainable exploitation of mines and quarries that will be friendly to the
environment, sensitive to local history and applicable to the whole of Cyprus.
2.2 As
already stated, the perceived problems that led to this project were:
·
The existence of long
abandoned mines and quarries, possibly contaminating or polluting the soil,
air, and water*1, the absence of a policy or legislation specifying
how to deal with sites abandoned before the 1980s, and who is responsible to
undertake and pay for the task of rehabilitation, vis-à-vis pre-and
post-accession to the European Union in 2004.
·
The limited concept of
rehabilitation that has been practiced since rehabilitation became obligatory
in 1980, which basically amounted either to cursory replanting undertaken in an
ineffective way, or to utilization of pits as unregulated rubbish dumps.
·
The fact that residential
development has been creeping nearer and nearer to mine/quarry sites, leading
to conflicts with the locals.
2.3 It
was felt that if the ownership of abandoned sites were known, a considerable
part of the problem might be better addressed in relation to the accepted
principle ‘’the polluter pays’’ and to answering the question ‘’who is the
polluter at an abandoned mine?’’. The
project intended to tackle this task, bearing in mind that site ownership falls
into the following categories:
*1 It is generally held that
contamination is the
infection caused by biological factors, e.g microorganisms on
humans and the environment; whereas pollutions is the introduction of chemical
substances (liquid, solid, gas) that can pollute the environment and interfere
with human health and the natural functioning of ecosystems. However, it is
also understood that engineers may interpret these terms differently from other
scientists, so both terms are used in this report.
- sites
on land requisitioned by the operator under earlier legal regimes;
- sites
on land owned privately (usually by local people) and leased to the operator;
- sites
on land owned by the Government, on hali or forest land, and leased to the
operator;
- sites
owned by the operator – the current preferred government policy for licensing.
2.4 In
the process of the project and the TT’s work it became clear that within the
time span available it could not get to the bottom of the land ownership issue,
mainly because information could only be obtained via the cumbersome and costly
route of applying to the Lands and Surveys Department, and this Department has
stated to the Mines Service that such a task, if undertaken, would take a very
long time to complete.
However,
it also became evident that there were so many other issues to consider, that
the TT could usefully focus on those for which knowledge of who owned the land
was not a prerequisite. Moreover, since
the sites being worked today will be the abandoned sites of tomorrow, the TT
decided to explore not only the issue of rehabilitation vis-à-vis already
abandoned sites, but to also address considerations regarding the best policies
for dealing with current working sites and the conditions to be imposed on
future licensing applications.
3.
Basic
facts established from site visits conducted during 2007-2008*2
·
Non-operational mines and
quarries are not only abandoned, but for the most part are unsecured and
unsupervised, i.e. no security fence, no warning signs and no policing.
·
Those close to and with easy
access to rural communities are becoming sites of unregulated dumping, whereas
those that are located away from communities and have difficult access, are
undisturbed and natural regrowth has taken over.
·
There are no planned or
ongoing rehabilitation efforts for any abandoned, inoperable or closed mines,
other than the Amiantos and Limni mines. The open pit of Mavrovouni mine is
currently used as a designated dump site.
·
Visual evidence from visits
by the working group indicates that rehabilitation efforts throughout the
island have not been very successful.
·
Many operational quarries
that were designed to be located at a safe and discreet distance from local
communities, now find themselves next to housing developments that are the
result of an expanding community. Quarry
managers acknowledged a plethora of unanticipated complaints from local communities
and residents.
·
All quarry managers interviewed
for this project expressed frustration, dismay and disappointment with the
licensing process. They specifically blamed the licensing authorities for
policies that:
- promote short-term over long term planning
- foster friction between communities and
quarries
- force a choice between tourism interests and
quarry operation
·
All Community Council
Presidents interviewed expressed a preference for quarry closure and re-use of
the space in a more people-friendly manner, such as agrotourism.
·
It should be noted that
Skouriotissa is now the only operational mine throughout the island (and holds
the distinction of having operated almost continuously since antiquity). This operation is still profitable, despite
the recent economic crisis. Apliki mine, part of which is in the buffer zone,
is non operational, though with promising ore reserves, and is undergoing
natural and effective rehabilitation.
However, the water in its pond remains acidic. There are no structures
or abandoned heavy machinery on site. The abandoned structures at Lefka and
Mavrovouni mines are undisturbed, but the open excavation pit is currently a
licensed, though unsecured, non-segregated rubbish dump.
*2 Site visits were conducted by the working
group carrying out this project.
4. Some of the additional
problems that came to the fore at this
time were:
4.1 The
acknowledgement that some materials (e.g. diabase) are only found in forested
areas, thus intervention in forests by quarrying may, in some cases, be
inevitable.
4.2 The
complete reversal in public acceptance of mining/quarrying sites. Whereas this activity was welcomed in the
past as the provider of local employment, it is now viewed in a negative light,
as a disturbance that also prevents land owners from developing their land and,
moreover, reduces the value of nearby land.
4.3 The
absence of integrated government planning.
While four departments are mainly involved - Mines, Geological Survey,
Town Planning, Environment Service – the last two have different agendas and their
approach is often quite antithetical to those of the first two. On the other hand, in a number of state
development plans, the mining and quarrying activity was encouraged and
considered as a strong contributor to economic progress and development.
4.4 The
Town Planning Department’s policy over the last years has been to push for ever
shorter operating licenses while concurrently approving building licenses for
homes that are gradually approaching the quarrying site and are thereby exposed
to the dust, ground vibrations, noise (caused by explosions heavy machinery and
traffic and crushing plants) and other disturbance created. This is leading to an ever increasing lobby
against quarrying activity.
4.5 At
the same time, the pro-construction policy followed by successive governments
has developed a ‘chicken and egg’ situation.
If more houses, roads, marinas and other infrastructures are promoted,
then more building material (cement, aggregates, stone etc.) has to be quarried.
Moreover, the more we build in concrete and bricks, which have a finite life
span, the more we need to consider what will happen to this material at the end
of its life.
4.6 Finally,
although it has been estimated that in Cyprus there are still untapped
resources that will provide building materials (aggregates and gypsum) for the
next 25 years (Wardell Report 2003, pp. 5-6) at current rates of development,
there is actually no long-term planning about the mining quarrying/ industry
(presentation by E. Morriseau).
5. Revised
remit of Think Tank
After consideration of various issues,
the original remit of the Think Tank proved to be too broad, and by the third
meeting the Think Tank had sidelined some issues as symptomatic rather than
causal/root problems and focused on some fundamental questions. The Think Tank
determined that answering such questions directly affected underlying policies.
These questions were:
5.1 ‘What
is an abandoned mine/quarry’? The answer determines not only re-use issues, but
actual costs for rehabilitation of the site.
5.2 ‘What
is sustainable quarrying’? In other
words are we either depleting the resources too quickly and or are we creating
serious irreversible collateral damage in other sectors through excessive
extraction? The quarrying industry has received a tremendous boost by a rapidly
expanding, even superheated, Cypriot economy. The demand for housing,
commercial buildings and infrastructure such as roads, dams, marinas, sewerage
and water systems has been such that there has been no time by the government
or civil society to consider the sustainability and the ramifications of
increased quarrying. Is the approach currently used, a valid and sustainable
model for the desired development of Cyprus?
5.3 Does
the "polluter pays" principle apply’? If so, how should the polluter be
determined? How is this principle
applied to long abandoned sites?
5.4 Should
the standard reforestation ‘’blanket approach’’ to site rehabilitation be
challenged in light of ecological evidence?
5.5 Should
the TT take issue with the current quarry licensing regime? The proposed
Turkish Cypriot licensing scheme which is based on a graded points system was
presented and considered worthwhile.
6.
When
can a site be considered abandoned?/Definition of an abandoned mine/quarry
Considerations
concerning the rehabilitation of abandoned sites inevitably led to the
question: when can a site be considered abandoned? This question becomes more
relevant today when new technologies make it feasible to process mineral ores
that were previously too difficult or costly to access. Also, prices in the
global market may now make the re-working of what used to be considered
secondary materials of little value, an industrially useful and economically
viable proposition.
EU
Directive 2006/21 on the management of waste from the extracting industries at
article 12 para 3 provides that ‘’a waste facility may be considered as finally
closed only after the competent authority has, without undue delay, carried out
a final on-site inspection, assessed all the reports submitted by the operator,
certified that the land affected by a waste facility has been rehabilitated and
communicated to the operator its approval of the closure. That approval shall
not in any way reduce the operator’s obligations under the conditions of the
permit or otherwise in law’’.
The
Think Tank did not consider that a ‘’closed facility’’ corresponds with its own
understanding of an abandoned site for the purpose of this report, and
therefore, offers the following definition of an abandoned site:
A site which is
inactive (not operational) for almost 20 years, it has not been rehabilitated
and there is no serious investor interested to re-operate it.
In
the case of a former mining site a more specific qualification could be that
It has remained
inactive for at least two commodity price cycles (each
cycle being estimated at around seven years) and there is an absence of investor
interest for reopening, evidenced by the non-issuance of a prospecting permit (the
pre-mining lease license).
7. Parameters of sustainable rehabilitation
The
Think Tank considers that sustainable rehabilitation must address at least six
parameters:
·
Health and safety: is there
contamination/pollution in the ground, water or air that needs to be addressed?
·
Aesthetics: how can we
overcome what many consider a gaping ‘’wound’’ in the landscape? Is it really a
wound, or a cultural monument that forms an important part of our industrial
heritage?
·
Ecological sustainability: is
the proposed solution compatible with the local ecology and does it support and
enhance local species, as well as biodiversity in general? Is it working with
natural processes?
·
Economic viability: not only
as regards the cost of rehabilitation but reduction in value of the
countryside. How does it affect the value of adjoining lands?
·
Alternative re-use: what new
use would be suitable not only for the site itself, but within our country’s
overall land use policy, so that open spaces are utilized wisely. Under this last parameter it became clear that
sustainable rehabilitation is not only concerned with the site itself and its
effect on the immediate environment and landscape, but must take into account
broader national planning issues.
·
Opinions, hopes and
aspirations of local communities.
8. Rehabilitation considerations
Addressing
the parameters outlined in para 7, the Think Tank expressed the following
views.
8.1
Health and safety considerations:
8.1.1
This is obviously the one
most significant consideration, yet there still seem to be a lot of unanswered
questions (or unconvincing replies) and half-measures taking place, giving rise
to public misconceptions. Safety issues arise from potential erosion of steep
slopes and from toxic waste materials (usually in the form of acid drains)
either exposed or buried without due care*3. Contamination/pollution
questions have been raised in connection with the asbestos mine at Amiantos and
the tailings ponds at Xeros near Lefka.
Land slide issues have also been connected to Amiantos, and appear to
have been addressed, whereas they continue to pose a problem at e.g. Larnaka
tis Lapithou on the southern slopes of Pendadaktylos. Safety issues from heavy
truck traffic are not addressed in this report, as that would again
over-broaden the scope of this work.
8.1.2
Licences granted after the
accession of Cyprus to the EU in 2004, are largely governed by two EU
Directives: the first is Directive 2004/34/EC on Environmental Liability, which
became law in 2007 and is based on the ’polluter pays’ principle, and the second
is Directive 2006/21/EC concerning the management of wastes from the extracting
industries, not yet enacted into law. However, the situation is not
straight-forward. Regarding the first Directive (on environmental liability),
the liability is for damage caused to the environment in general, not to
specific persons (who can claim damages through civil actions in court). It is assumed that the law does not provide a
remedy for pollution created in earlier times, although it could be argued that
if the pollution continues after 2004, even though operations ceased before
that time, it would fall within the ambit of the current law, if the polluter
were traceable. However, even if this
were the case, the law does not currently apply in the northern part of Cyprus
where the potentially polluting tailings of the Lefka/Xeros area are still
considered to be causing problems.
8.1.3
Under the English Common Law, which has applied in Cyprus since colonial
times, the legal remedy has in the past been addressed through an action for
nuisance (οχληρία). This concerns damages to a specific party,
but does not provide recourse where damage is to the public at large by
affecting the surrounding environment.
While there has always been a legal resource as just mentioned, there
has also been a reluctance on the part of Cypriot courts to award substantial
damages against offenders and a reluctance on the part of governments to make
the offenders responsible. In the case
of the declaration of bankruptcy by the
Asbestos Mine at Amiantos and its subsequent closure, it was left to the
Government to proceed with rehabilitation.
8.1.4
In cases where the cost of remedying the damage left behind by mining
activities is substantial (as in Skouriotissa, Amiantos and Lefka) the
operators of the sites were not obliged to make good and public authorities are
unwilling to get involved, unless the funds are externally provided. In Skouriotissa the clean-up was achieved by
allowing re-operation of the mine on condition that part of the income
generated would cover the cost of remediation.
In Amiantos the rehabilitation has been funded from the Rehabilitation
Fund administered by the Geological Survey Department to which all
*3 It is scientifically
accepted that whereas most chemicals could impact ground water through vertical
migration, heavy metals are trapped within a shallow horizon near the soil
surface. For this reason mine ponds with a high acidic content, while not
inherently dangerous to humans (unless deliberately ingested) could be harmful
to fauna. However, the absence of animal
or bird remains near such ponds indicates that fauna are able to distinguish
and avoid these ponds.
licensed
operators contribute, and this has used up a large part of the Fund’s
resources. In Lefka the problem remains,
partly because the polluter, viz. the US-based Cyprus Mines Corporation, ceased
operations and withdrew in 1974, and so far no legal redress has been sought in
the US courts. Nevertheless, part of the
EU assistance offered to the Turkish Cypriot community has been devoted to
exploring the situation at Lefka and considering possible scenarios to address
it.
8.2 Aesthetic
considerations
8.2.1
Historically most Cypriots have been largely indifferent to destruction
of their landscape, but they are very conscious of what might be perceived as a
threat to their own property interests.
Now that sale/development of land is considered the best, if not the
only, profitable investment, and that interest by property developers has moved
beyond the coast to rural areas, objections to the operation of mines/quarries
are often expressed in terms of aesthetic and environmental considerations,
whereas in many cases, the local land owners, understandably, want to protect
their direct interests.
8.2.2
The aesthetics of rehabilitation among both the Greek Cypriot and
Turkish Cypriot communities have so far been limited to tree-planting by
introducing young trees, sometimes on terraced land. This has mostly proved ineffective.
8.2.3
There is an alternative school of thought, supported by mining
engineers, geologists and archaeologists, that since mining has been associated
with the wealth and fame of our island from ancient times, the evidence of
mining/quarrying activity is part of our
cultural heritage. So, far from obliterating all traces of this
activity, we should protect the remains as cultural (industrial) monuments and
utilize them for educational purposes and as tourist attractions.
8.2.4
In fact, the project’s observations of 40 sites throughout the island seem
to indicate that the most harmonious rehabilitation in the landscape is where
Nature is allowed to take over, whereby the forest or flora returns, but the
historical activity is still visible and open to interpretation. This has been observed both at Petra
abandoned mine in the Larnaka district
(Kalavassos/Asgata area) and Kilanemos abandoned quarry in the Karpass. It was noted that in some cases, notably at
Vitsada in the Mesaoria plain, the stark remains of the quarrying activity
provide an almost ‘natural’ stone monument in the horizon, whereas the
half-hearted attempt to plant pines is not only superfluous, but ineffective,
since it is a species not suited to dry plains. So it could be said that this
is a case of ‘’less is more’’ - the less you interfere, the better it could be.
8.2.5
However, given that modern-day quarrying takes up extensive land areas,
and that residential building is no longer limited to the village nucleus, but
occurs much closer to the site than in the past, it is probably not appropriate or sufficient to
prescribe that leaving abandoned sites alone to recover, should be applied. A
better policy would be to give Nature a helping hand by working with natural
succession processes. There are also other reasons, which we shall see below,
advocating in favour of alternative re-use, in various cases.
8.3 Considerations of ecological
sustainability
8.3.1
The term ecological sustainability refers to whether a solution can
support the species native to that area, and whether it enhances natural
biodiversity. The practice of planting
young pines already referred to, is not ecologically ideal. Pine forests are low in bird diversity, and
in any case, pines would have a better chance of survival if planted as seeds
and allowed to grow together with the natural vegetation of the area which is
more robust. A botanical study
undertaken at Skouriotissa (Andri Yiangou, 2008) shows that over 112 species of
natural flora continued to grow in the area, despite the long and extensive mining
operations, and it is our strong recommendation that any replanting
should
involve the local shrubs and other flora which in turn support local
fauna. Additionally, the practice of
terracing is unnecessary where there is no danger of landslide or erosion,
since it causes further disturbance to the recently established condition of
the area. On the contrary, maintaining
the cliff edges left on the site provides a habitat for birds of prey. For this reason cliff faces should be secured
and enhanced wherever possible both by creating some openings on the cliff face
for nesting purposes, and also by encouraging shrub growth.
8.4 Economic viability of rehabilitation
8.4.1
It is generally considered that rehabilitation solutions are harder and
costlier to implement if decided when operations cease, rather than if they
have been planned in advance and built into the cost of the operation and its
design. This consideration requires,
both in the case of future licensees and of re-licensing, that:
·
there should be a requirement
for long term land-use planning which is compatible with the countryside and
the rural landscape;
·
the licensing authority
should be aware of such planning and guide the applicants rather than leave it
to them to propose the easiest solution;
·
more realistic amounts than
hitherto should be paid into the Rehabilitation Fund.
·
stricter standards should be
introduced by the statutory licensing authorities, as to who can be defined and
accepted as a potential natural resource prospector.
8.4.2 In the case of already abandoned sites, if
allowing Nature to take over while giving it a helping hand is the most
economic solution, this should be assisted with regulatory and practical
measures which ensure that these sites do not end up as rubbish dumps, unless
so decided. Proposed interventions to improve the quality of habitats for
biodiversity are given under paras 10 and 11.
8.5 Alternative re-use
8.5.1 Although
there is a tendency to think that acceptable future re-uses have to be
attractive – e.g. forests, open air museums, tourist complexes – as opposed to
rubbish dumps, this way of thinking has to be tempered with reality. In effect a mine or a quarry often leaves
behind an open pit which is a very
convenient place to dump waste. Since we
do need places to deposit our
wastes, it makes more sense to do so in a location that has been already
degraded, than to seek out other rural, and possibly pristine, locations to
turn into landfills. Additional needs imposed
on us by EU directives call for establishing areas to deposit inert waste, or
for waste sorting before final treatment.
Having said this, the Think Tank is concerned that it should not be
interpreted as encouraging re-use of our industrial heritage strictly as waste dumps.
The first obligation vis-a-vis waste treatment, is to minimize waste,
particularly on permeable substrata such as limestone. Consideration also needs
to be given to the whole mechanism of attracting users to the land-fill and to
its appearance on closure. Furthermore,
one has to consider seriously the concerns and objections of the local
communities bordering the various sites. It the local communities do not want
mines or quarries to operate in their proximity because their land values or
quality of life are adversely affected, why should they consent to changing the
use of the existing/abandoned mine or quarry with another activity imposing an
equal degree of nuisance?
8.5.2 Nevertheless,
the fact remains that abandoned mines and quarries could be used to host
installations and activities which could not be established in other areas.
Such might be the use of pits as water reservoirs and the use of abandoned
sites to install photovoltaics or sewage plants. Not to mention that the
amphitheatrical structure of opencast quarries is the ideal lay-out to host
open air theatres in some locations, as has actually happened in other
countries.
Development
of tourist complexes is already considered to be a suitable re-use in Cyprus;
Limni Mine has obtained official approval to be privately redeveloped in this
way, and the owner of Zygi quarry also plans to develop a luxury holiday
complex when the quarry’s useful life is over. Where the historical/visual
remains of a site are to be obliterated, serious consideration must be given as
to whether another one, with similar characteristics, remains as an example of
this particular industrial heritage.
8.5.3 Additionally, serious consideration must be given to the historical
significance of a site. Μining and production of copper has been
taking place on Cyprus at least since the second millennium BC and is,
therefore, closely related with the its history. For this reason, it is
important that some mines, such as Mitsero, Kokkinoyia, Kokkinopezoula,
Kalavassos/Platies, Mavrovouni, Lefka, are preserved as archaeological parks
where both Cypriots and visitors from abroad can learn about this important
part of our island’s cultural
heritage. Similar efforts have been extremely successful in other
European countries (such as the Great Orme in Wales, Geological and Mining
Park of Sardinia, Iglesias, etc). Las Medulas in Spain, where the remains of Roman
gold mining are preserved, has been declared a UNESCO world heritage site
attracting thousands of visitors every year. The creation of such an
archaeological park, or circuit, in Cyprus
will help boost the local economy by creating a new attraction which
will bring visitors to areas thus far neglected as tourist destinations.
8.6 Local opinion and aspirations concerning
rehabilitation and re-use of sites.
8.6.1
This consideration has been left till the end, even though it is most
important, because it is perhaps the trickiest.
We have already discussed the perceived threat to communities from
applications for new/renewed licenses.
While rehabilitation and re-use is usually a welcome activity for the
local community, the residents may not be fully aware of all possible options
open to them, or of the needs that national planning must satisfy. For this reason they should be involved in
the rehabilitation planning process at an early stage, before rumours and
suspicion run rampant. In accordance with the precepts of the Aarhus Convention on Access to Environmental
Information (to which Cyprus is a signatory), stakeholders should not only
be informed, but be part of the decision-making. This means that the
authorities should be prepared to consider with the local population, all
parameters mentioned above and to share their reasoning in a transparent way.
9. Is
a mine ever really abandoned?
Given
the fact that new technologies allow access to minerals which previously were
either too costly to reach, or which had a low, or no market value, the Think
Tank considered whether and what type of rehabilitation, if any, might be
suited to a site that might be re-used in future. It concluded that if rehabilitation is seen
as an on-going process (see below) rather than an activity that takes place
only at the end of a site’s economically useful life, it is possible to make
appropriate arrangements, so that rehabilitation measures that work with nature
are taken, which also allow for future access and re-use.
10. Conclusions
A.
Mining, but especially
quarrying, cannot be seen in isolation, but within the context of our national
sustainable development planning, since it affects land-use both as an
impact to the natural and social environment, and also as an input to the
economy though the construction
industry.
Consequently
there is an urgent need for long-term
planning which will address:
·
Where mineral resources are
and what is their long-term availability?
·
How many resources we are
likely to use over the next 25-50 years?
·
Whether there is a useful
correlation between the location of minerals and proposed development areas?
·
Are concrete and bricks
likely to continue to be the preferred
construction material?
·
Is there, or should there be,
a point beyond which it would it be more cost-effective to import minerals or
change construction methods or reuse
demolition/construction waste, or use recycled materials in order to avoid
further social problems and environmental degradation?
·
Would long-term site
operation permits of 10 years or more help to ensure environmentally-friendly
investment in machinery and operational philosophy?
B. Rehabilitation of sites
·
Rehabilitation should be
planned from the inception of operations and should be on-going.
·
Re forestation with pine
trees is not suitable except in forests, and is also wasteful if the young
trees have to be watered. Reforestation
with seeds and incorporation of local flora is recommended.
·
Terracing should not be
encouraged unless to protect the area from land-slides; instead there should be
better utilization of the cliff edges left by the site operation.
C. Who pays?
If
it is agreed that helping nature to take over is the most advisable choice for
mines and quarries, then the main expenses involved are limited to proper
fencing, anti-erosion measures, control and, if need be, diversion of rainwater
flow, as well as marking and interpreting such sites. These are tasks that can
be funded through the Rural Agricultural Plan 2007-13. A pre-requisite will be
to ensure that there is no contamination and, in order to apply common
standards, this is a government task, specially since the appropriate
departments are also in possession of the relevant information about past
activities. Where the land belongs to the operator and is now used, or will be
used, for other purposes the operator should bear the responsibility for clean-up
and other safety costs.
11. Recommended actions
Regarding long-term planning:
1. There
is a need for a long term island-wide study on the advisability of extending
quarrying zones, which should take into account the points raised at para 10A
above concerning the availability and location of minerals, as well as the
viability of continuing to use current construction methods and materials. A similar position has been expressed by the
Cyprus Technical Chamber in its bulletin no. 109 of Feb. 2008*4.
Meanwhile all involved departments, viz., Mines, Geological Survey, Town
Planning, Environment and Forests should, in their common deliberations, also
consider the issues raised at para 10A, and reach a better consensus than
exists at present, so that prospective operators can be suitably guided about
rehabilitation and/or re-use.
Regarding improved
procedures
2. Future
licenses to be of long term (at least up to 10-year) duration, to allow for
proper economic and sustainability planning.
3. Licenses
granted by the authorities and all relevant information as to the terms and
conditions of the license, including rehabilitation, and the ownership of land,
should be available to the public. Such
a register would also facilitate the operation of the ‘polluter pays’
principle.
*4 Position of Cyprus Technical Chamber: study on the
extension of quarrying zones (bulletin 109, February
2008,
page.
27.) (Extract)
The Cyprus Technical
recommends that an interdisciplinary study be carried out as regards the
extension of quarrying zones in Cyprus.
In addition to geological and mineral considerations, the study should
take into account potential environmental impacts and existing settlement data. (This position is
contained in a letter of 20 Feb 2008 addressed by the Chamber to the President
of the Board for Consideration of Planning Deviations).
4. Given
that local participation is now an important part of equitable governance, it
must be suitably conducted. Under the
Aarhus Convention stakeholder participation can no longer be just a formal
exercise of imparting information; since appropriate techniques and processes
for public participation have been developed by European organizations, these
techniques should be applied also in Cyprus.
Thus, suitable training courses should be offered to Cypriot civil
servants and others who will be involved in the process of public consultation.
5. The
concept of a sustainable Mining and Quarrying Think Tank as a permanent
practice should be considered. Such a body,
with appropriate terms of reference could usefully follow up whatever actions
are adopted, continuously appraising the new developments in the extracting
sector.
6. The
relevant departments (Mines, Geological Survey) should work with the
Agriculture Department in developing suitable provisions for re-habilitation
and/or re-use in the Rural Development Plan and, subsequently, should work with
local communities helping them to secure funds from the Plan. Thus, the full spectrum of re-use
probabilities should be discussed to broaden the limited local vision.
7. Guidelines for sustainable rehabilitation and
potential re-use based on the points raised in this report and in particular on
points 1, 4, 8, 9, 10 and 11 of this paragraph, should be developed. Additionally, the guidelines should provide
what record should be kept (photographic and other) of the area, so that a
base-line is available for comparison purposes, when rehabilitation is
implemented.
Regarding natural
rehabilitation of operating sites and new licenses
8.
In cases of natural rehabilitation the operator should be required by
the licensing authorities to work with the processes of natural succession and
the surrounding landscape. For instance:
·
instead of planting trees on
artificial terraces, to use seeds of shrubs/trees,
including the site’s natural vegetation. This will stabilize the ground and
speed-up succession;
·
among the site operator’s
obligations must be the creation of a ‘bank’ of flora seeds;
·
allow breaking up and
moderate use of drilling and blasting of solid rock floors to allow plants to
colonize.
·
assisting re-growth should
utilize ecological alternatives, see point 10 below.
Regarding natural
rehabilitation of abandoned sites
9. For
already abandoned sites, develop possible alternative scenarios, bearing in
mind the points made at para 10C above, considering the responsibility for
safety issues and the work required to assist natural processes.
10. In
cases where there has been no natural re-growth, identify the reason and work towards
over-coming it. Where the lack of, or inadequacy of, top soil is the cause,
consider ecological alternatives such as spreading sludge on the surface or
utilizing ‘vinassa’, the waste derived from wine production which is currently
unutilised.
Regarding alternative
re-use of abandoned sites
11. Consider
the proposals discussed at paras 8.5.1 and 8.5.2 within the country’s overall
planning. Based on para 8.5.3 decide which mines/quarries could form the basis
of an industrial history trail that might obtain international
recognition. Aim for project funding to
design and implement this.
Bibliography
1.
European Commission,
Directive on Environmental Liability, no. 2004/34/EC
2.
European Commission,
Directive on Waste Management, 2006/21/EC
3.
Morriseau E., Presentation to
2nd Think Tank meeting, ‘Strategy for Sustainable
Quarrying and Mining in Cyprus, 2001-2025, Key findings, Key Issues, A Way
forward’, July, 2008
4.
Orountiotis C., Report to 4th
Think Tank meeting, December, 2008
5.
Symons N., Presentation to 4th Think Tank Meeting on Biodiversity issues
connected to site rehabilitation, December, 2008.
6. United Nations, ‘The Aarhus Convention on
Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters’,
June, 1998
7. Wardell Armstrong & A.L.A. Planning
Partnership, ‘Strategy for Sustainable Quarrying and Mining Development of
Cyprus 2001-2025’, May, 2004.
8. Yiangou A., ‘Η χλωρίδα
της Μεταλλευτικής
Μίσθωσης
της Σκουριώτισσας’ (The flora at Skouriotissa),
July, 2008
